Developing Autonomous Practice in Mental Health Nursing Essay

Developing Autonomous Practice in Mental Health Nursing - Essay Example Assessment in mental health nursing is something that is most understood through its application in the case of a patient. In relation, this essay will then examine case of a patient with Paranoid Schizophrenia, who was the patient during my community placement. Performed in a form of a case study, this essay will pay attention to the patient`s psychiatric and personal history. The current sociological, psychological and physiological needs of the patient will be also examined from the point of view of therapeutic approaches. Moreover, this essay aims to demonstrate how the nursing therapeutic approaches work in practice and develop a deeper understanding of applying some therapeutic methods in the care of individuals suffering from paranoid schizophrenia. More specifically, this paper will utilize Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs as the main guiding theory or theoretical perspective in the assessment and intervention processes. In addition, the goal of the paper is to examine the role of the nurse, especially as a health educator, in caring for the mentally ill patient. Finally, this paper will discuss therapeutic nursing interventions, assessment of needs, and patient`s progress, analyze the therapeutic efficacy of environment where the patient is being cared for. Case Study Patient’s Background and History As mentioned, the case to be studied involves schizophrenia. This condition is usually diagnosed in adolescents or young patients. In some cases, it can even manifest in the person’s earlier years of life. The peak incidence for the onset of the disease lies between 15 and 25 years for men and 25 to 35 years for women (America Psychiatric Association, 2004). More specifically, this case study will involve the case of Patrick Jones (pseudonym; the name of the patient is changed for confidentiality), a 25 years old who was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia last year. Paranoid schizophrenia is considered to be the most common type of schizophrenia all over the world. The clinical picture of this condition is characterized by delusions, paranoia. As with most paranoid schizophrenic patients, Patrick Jones usually has perceptual disturbances and hallucinations, generally of the auditory type. Two months before Patrick was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia, his girlfriend was killed by a gang committing acts of violence in the neighbourhood. Patrick`s relatives and friends were concerned about his constant complaints of abdominal pain and headache. He experien ced severe appetite loss and as a result he lost a lot of weight in two and a half months - about 12 kg. Patrick stopped taking his showers and did not pay attention to personal hygiene. As a result, his body acquired an unbearable odour. Patrick also developed an ungrounded fear that he was about to be run over by a car, so he constantly stayed at home and refused to leave it even to go to the store to buy himself some food. His behaviour became utterly anti-social. He stayed locked in his bedroom for days. He also had episodes of outbursts of anger with elements of violence, which greatly terrified his family. Because of these different occurrences and observations, as well as the assumed cause of the patient’s condition (death of girlfriend), Patrick’s family opted to call for medical assistance. Thus, Patrick was brought in for assessment and evaluation. After a series of assessments and interactions with the patient,

AIRPORT PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

AIRPORT PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT - Essay Example According to London City Airport (2006: 10), LCA Master Plan indicates that the airport is in a position of accommodating 8 million passengers up to 2030. This is anticipated to occur in line with continued support of London growth, and meeting the increment in the demand for business travel. Moreover, the LCA Master Plan illustrates that the airport focuses on maintaining good neighbourhood with local citizens and environmental record. In addition, the plan illustrates that the airport will maintain its operational hours of closing at night during weekdays, and operating 24 hours during weekends (London City Airport 2006: 10). Further, the Master Plan claims that the airport will neither create another runway nor will it host larger aeroplanes. As such, the airport focuses on achieving its growth through maximization of its runway, creation of better facilities, and improving flight occupancy for passengers. Finally, LCA Master Plan indicates that passenger growth will increase duri ng the Olympic Games and employment opportunities will be created through the implementation of the Master Plan (London City Airport 2006: 10). The purpose of LCA Master Plan is to indicate the growth potential of the airport up to 2030 (London City Airport 2006: 10). The Master Plan was prepared in response to 2003 government requirement on White Paper that all UK airports have to develop Master Plans, which indicate growth in response to passenger demand. As such, LCA Master Plan indicates how to optimize on the current runways without a need of constructing new runways. In addition, LCA Master Plan reflects White Paper principles, as well as how the airport intends to make objectives outlined in the Master Plan a reality. LCA Master Plan illustrates how the airport intends to have a growth of 8 million passengers by 2030, minimize noise, and maintain environmental sustainability (London

Gender differences Essay Example for Free

Gender differences Essay It could be said that to some extent the view that processes within schools may lead to gender differences in educational achievement is true. The theory of Interactionist looks at the individual rather than society; therefore it is a bottom up theory. Interactionist argue that the processes within the schools such as the hidden curriculum may lead students in gender differences in educational achievement, as what happens inside the school which is unwritten is what influences the individual in educational achievement, not the formal curriculum or what is written rule such as the subjects which is being studied influences the student to achieve. The sociologist Goffman explains that everyone in society is presenting the self in everyday life. What he means is that everyone is a puppet of society and not in control of what they say or do, but in fact they are attached in strings and act for example in play, such as a female may play the role of a mother at home but play the role of a student at school. Some argue that the structure and settings of schools, generally creates gender differences in educational achievement, for example the socialisation aspect is that the students are socialised into tolerable forms of behaviour pupils are given drill in how to move about the school, sit in desk, raise hands the puritan of hard work, sober living and good manners is continuously urged upon them. This socialisation naturally created gender differences as males are seen or expected to behave in classrooms in the manner of masculine while females are seen or expected to behave in feminine behaviour or otherwise it could be considered odd, and therefore the students who do behave odd are looked at differently or called deviant. The sociologist Postman and Weingartner, studied that the hidden curriculum consisted of discovering that; knowledge is beyond the power of students and is in case none of their business; secondly recall is the highest form of intellectual achievement and therefore the collection of facts is the goal of education; the voice of authority is to be trusted more than independent judgement; feelings are irrelevant in education; passive acceptance is a more desirable response to ideas than active criticism. This study proves that the individual does not play in an important role but rather how to survive the school and just pass the exams was important and therefore not keen on which gender is learning or how but on how they should just pass the time in school and move on as education is not about the self but on facts and memorising, and not understanding. As a result it could be said that the study of classroom interaction is the idea that the reality of the classroom is a negotiated reality. For students and teachers, the hidden curriculum consists of learning how to survive in the classroom.

Full Range Of Leadership Model Management Essay

Full Range Of Leadership Model Management Essay As indicated in chapter one, this research attempts to fill a void in the discussion of how managers leadership styles influence employees to stimulate their creative performance in public organizations, particularly in developing countries where environmental variables or national contexts have a strong impact on leadership styles. Since the study aims to determine the degree to which Omani civil service managers practise the Full Range of Leadership styles to enhance employees creative performance, three interrelated issues need to be addressed to meet these aims: 1) historical evolution of theories of leadership emphasized in the Full Range of Leadership model; 2) historical development of creativity theories focusing on an individual creativity model; and 3) the interrelationships between the issues 1 and 2. In this way, the three fields of the literature above together constitute a framework which will inform the analysis of this study. Therefore, the chapter is structured into these main areas of interest. In the first part, the chapter examines the leadership concept and its historical evolution theories. It concentrates on the Full Range of Leadership model and its components as a new leadership approach. In part two the chapter reveals the evolution of the creativity concept. It highlights individual cr eativity theories and discusses employees creative performance. In the third part, the chapter demonstrates the relationship between transformational and transactional leadership and employees creative performance. Finally, the chapter illustrates the studys analytical framework. 2.2 Part One: The Historical Evolution of Leadership 2.2.1 Overview of the Leadership Concept The leadership phenomenon is recognized as being the most extensively researched social process known to behavioural science, because it is believed that leadership plays a crucial role in organizations through a direct influence on individuals and groups within those organizations (Yukl, 2008). Leadership is a difficult concept to define. Taylor (1994) argued that the literature has shown no one definition, list of descriptors, or theoretical model that provides a complete picture of either the theory or practice of leadership. Further, Yukl (2008) suggested that despite the fact that many definitions have been offered, no one particular definition captures the essence of leadership. Bass (1999) claimed that the definition of leadership should depend on the purposes to be served by the definition. According to Burns (1978), leadership is identified as the ability to inspire followers to attempt to accomplish goals that represent the values, motivations, wants, needs, aspirations, and expectations of both leaders and followers. Additionally, Schein (1992) referred to leadership as the ability to operate outside of the existing culture to start an evolutionary change processes. Other scholars such as Bass and Bass (2008) attempted to describe leadership in broader terms. They mentioned that the definition of leadership involves a number of assumptions and understandings from both empirical and conceptual sources. Leadership: (a) exists within social relationships and serves social ends; (b) involves purpose and direction; (c) is an influence process; (d) is a function; and (e) is contextual and contingent. Therefore, leadership involves those who work with others to provide direction and who exert influence on persons and things in order to achieve the organizations goals. Leadership is also defined in terms of a process of social influence, whereby a leader influences members of a group towards a goal (Bryman, 1992). In his definition Bryman tends to emphasize three main elements of leadership: influence, group, and goal. Northouse (2012) extended Brymans leadership elements and identifies four main components central to the definition of leadership: (a) leadership is a process; (b) leadership involves influence; (c) leadership occurs in groups; and (d) leadership involves common goals. Therefore, referring to leadership as a process it is not a trait or characteristics that reside in the leader. It means that a leader affects, and is affected by followers. It emphasizes that leadership is an interactive event occurring between the leaders and their followers. Therefore, leadership is concerned with how the leader affects followers, and thus involves influence. Obviously, those definitions want to illustrate that without influences, leadership does not exist. Besides, Northouse (2012) pointed out that leadership is a phenomenon that occurs in groups. Groups are the context in which leadership takes place. Thus, leadership is basically about one individual who influences a group of others to accomplish common goals. Therefore, both leaders and followers are involved together in the leadership process. That is why it is common to say that leaders need followers, and followers need leaders. In fact, it is a transactional event that occurs between the leader and the followers. Although leaders and followers are closely linked, it is the leader who often initiates the relationship, creates the communication linkages, and carries the burden for maintaining the relationship (Bryman, 1992). Briefly, after a careful revision of the enormous variety of conceptualisations of leadership available in the literature, the crucial elements of leadership are best represented in Northouses definition (2012:6), where leadership is defined as a process whereby an individual motivates a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. This definition raises the following question: What are the leadership characteristics that enable an individual to influence others to unite for a common purpose? This question can best be answered by gaining a better understanding of the historical evolution of leadership and the theoretical paradigms in which leadership has been studied. With this in mind, the next sections will discuss the development of leadership theories, from the traditional leadership theories of the mid-1800s and leading to the more modern paradigm of transformational/transactional leadership theory. 2.2.2 Historical Evolution of Leadership Theories Since the early 1800s researchers have attempted to develop different research approaches to analyse the construct of leadership and its relationship with motivating others to greater productivity. The next section focuses on five of the main organizational leadership theories that have been developed over time. These theories are the great-man theory, the trait theory, the behavioural approach, the situational approach, and the integrative approach. 2.2.2.1 Great-Man Theory In the early nineteenth century, great-man theory was popular and focused on great leaders who helped to change and shape world events. Those great leaders or heroes were highly influential individuals due to their personal charisma, intelligence, or wisdom, and they utilized this power in a way that had a decisive historical impact. The theory assumes that leaders are born and not made. Thus, the capacity of the leader is inherent and there is not much you can do about it. The great-man theory believes that those great leaders possessed specific traits or characteristics that enabled them to stand out from others, to attract the necessary followers, to set direction, and to be strong leaders in their time. These theories evolved and were the natural forerunners to trait theory (Bass and Bass, 2008, and Kirkpatrick and Locke, 1991). 2.2.2.2 The Trait Approach The trait approach focuses upon personal qualities of leadership. This approach is based on the assumption that leaders can be identified by specific traits or characteristics. Basically, there are three broad types of trait which have been addressed by the literature: first, physical elements, such as height, weight, appearance, and age; second, ability characteristics, such as intelligence, scholarship and knowledge, knowing how to get things done, and fluency of speech; and third, other personality features, such as self-confidence, inter-personal sensitivity, and emotional control (Yukl, 2008). Hundreds of trait studies were carried out during the 1930s and 1940s, but according to Stogdill (1974) the massive research effort failed to find any traits that would guarantee leadership success. Smith and Peterson (1988) suggest that the failure of the trait approach has been attributed to the following reasons: first, providing only a list of traits and skills found to be productive did not help in understanding leadership; second, the trait approach failed to tell what these leaders actually do in performing their day-to-day leadership tasks; and third, the method of measurement used by researchers for this approach did not include psychological scaling. Obviously, over the years, it has been documented that leader traits contribute significantly to the prediction of leader effectiveness, leader emergence, and leader advancement. However, there is still a lack of agreement among researchers regarding leader traits and attributes (Zaccaro et al., 2004). Realizing the unreliability of trait theory, researchers began to focus on the observable leadership behaviours, an area which came to be known as behavioural leadership theory. 2.2.2.3 The Behavioural Approach The behavioural approach started in the 1950s as researchers became discouraged with the trait approach and started to pay closer attention to what leaders actually do. Yukl (2008) provides details of two major research studies that were conducted by researchers from Ohio State University and the University of Michigan using two lines of research methods developed to study leader behaviour. The method used by Ohio State University utilized observations to investigate how leaders spend their time completing the activities, responsibilities, and functions of the job. Researchers, therefore, collected data from direct observation, diaries, job description questionnaires, and interviews. The other method of research used by the University of Michigan focused on perceptions of effective leadership behaviour. In conformity with Horn-Turpin (2009) and Yukl (2008), from a series of studies which have been conducted at Ohio State University, it was concluded that the major dimensions of leaders behaviour involved two factors: consideration and initiation. Consideration refers to the extent to which the leader shows consideration to followers. This means the leader listens to the members, shows concern for their welfare, is friendly and approachable, expresses appreciation for good work, treats subordinates as equals, increases subordinates work and maintains their self-esteem, reduces inter-personal conflict, and puts subordinates suggestions into operation. On the other hand, initiation refers to task-related behaviour, such as initiating activity in the group, organizing it, coordinating tasks, and defining the problem for the group and outlining the way the work is to be done. The initiation of structure includes such leadership behaviour as planning activities, facilitating goal achievem ents, providing feedback for the group, maintaining standards and meeting deadlines, deciding in detail what should be done, and how establishing clear channels of communication, organizing work tightly, structuring the work context, providing a clear-cut definition of role responsibility. Based on Yukl (1989), the University of Michigan study identified two specific leadership behaviours that corresponded to the two behaviours identified in the Ohio State University study: (1) production oriented; and (2) employee oriented. Production-oriented behaviours, which corresponded to the initiation behaviour in the Ohio State study, involved completion of tasks, while employee-oriented behaviours corresponded to the consideration-based behaviour in the Ohio State study. Leaders who demonstrated the employee-oriented behaviour also exhibited human-relation-oriented skills and relationships with their employees. Actually, these studies supported the notion that effective leaders had to be cognizant of both task and relationship orientation. Additionally, these studies suggested that some organizations may need leaders who are more focused on tasks, while others require a leadership perspective with strong human-relations skills. Despite the significant findings from both studies, Bryman (1992) mentioned four problems that had been identified with the behavioural approach. The first was inconsistent findings that is, the magnitude and direction of the correlations between consideration and initiating styles and various outcome measures were highly variable. Also, some correlations failed to reach statistical significance. Secondly, an absence of situational analysis. Behavioural approach studies failed to include in their research situational variables that are, including variables which moderate the relationship between leader behaviour and various outcomes. Thirdly, there was a measurement problem: for example, the consideration measure seemed to be affected by leniency effect. Ratings of leaders were found to be contaminated by subordinates implicit theory. Finally, there was a problem of causality that is, does the style of leader influence various outcomes, or does the leader adjust his/her style in re sponse to group performance? Thus, some research went further to suggest that different situations may require different leadership styles and approaches. This concept led to a major shift to contingency theory. 2.2.2.4 The Contingency Approach The fourth leadership approach is Fiedlers (1967) contingency theory or the contingency approach. The theory was developed in the 1950s and 1960s and was viewed as a complement to the Michigan and Ohio State studies. It focuses upon the impact of the situation in determining the leaders style. According to Fiedler (1967) as cited by Yukl (2008), leadership performance depends on both the organization and the leader. He suggested that situational variables have a moderate effect on the relationship between leadership style and effectiveness. Fiedler mentioned that leadership performance depends as much on the organization as it does on the leaders own attributes. Evidently, the contingency approach emphasizes the importance of contextual factors that might influence the leadership process. The characteristics of followers, the nature of the work that the leaders unit performs, the organization type, and the external environment are all major situational variables. The theory suggests that the effectiveness of leader behaviour is dependent upon the situation. Indeed, the contingency approach is sometimes referred to as the situational theory (Yukl, 2008). Northouse (2012) argued that the contingency approach is like the behavioural approach and has many problems similar to those identified in the behavioural approach, such as inconsistent findings, causality problems, and measurement problems. Further, the theory has also been criticized as being an ambiguous approach. Thus, the integrative approach appeared as an attempt to integrate all these theories in one. 2.2.2.5 The Integrative Approach The integrative approach involves studying more than one type of leadership variable. Indeed, few theories or studies include traits, behaviour, influence processes, situation variables, and outcomes all in the same design (Northouse, 2012). In fact, as leaders engage in the constantly changing environment and demands of others, Yukl (2008) argued that this approach may offer a meaningful analysis of the practical day-to-day situations that leaders might encounter. He emphasized that leaders influence a number of situations. Leaders impact the effectiveness of a group or organization by influencing the: (a) interpretation of external events by members; (b) choice of objectives and strategies to pursue; (c) motivation of members to achieve the objectives; (d) mutual trust and cooperation of members; (e) organization and coordination of work activities; (f) allocation of resources to activities and objectives; (g) development of member skills and confidence; (h) learning and sharing of new knowledge by members; (i) enlistment of support and cooperation from outsiders; (j) design of formal structure, programme, and systems; and (k) shared beliefs and values of members. All of these situations are important and require that a leader effectively recognizes the situation and employs the appropriate leadership strategies. Over time, the academic focus has moved from leadership traits to leadership behaviours and then to using different leadership styles in various situations; however, it was obvious that because of the limitations found in those leadership theories, a new leadership approach needed to emerge. Problems such as inconsistent findings, measurement problems, and the problem of causality led to general doubt about leadership theory and stimulated fresh thinking, which led to a new approach (Bennett, 2009). 2.2.3 The New Leadership Approach: The Full Range of Leadership Model Leadership theories had focused primarily on making operations more efficient, through looking for ways to increase production and improve operations. Bass (1985) emphasized that in leadership theories, employee motivation was considered not the key; but only the vehicle. Vrooms expectancy theory (1982) demonstrates that motivation influences job performance and employees are motivated by receiving rewards and avoiding punishment. Thus, employees tied their level of effort to their expected outcome. They were transaction driven. In conformity with Bass (1985), transactional leaders understood the needs of their employees and how to meet those needs in exchange for the appropriate level of effort. However, researchers saw situations where individuals were led by visionary and charismatic leaders who helped their organizations achieve more than was believed possible (Bass, 1985; House, 1977; and Bryman, 1992). Hence, those findings helped lay the foundation for transformational and tra nsactional leadership theory, which later extended to the Full Range of Leadership theory. The theory of transformational and transactional leadership began to develop in the 1970s and 1980s. Downton (1973) introduced the term transformational leadership, followed by Burns (1978), who focused on transformational and transactional leadership in the political field. In fact, they opened a new chapter in leadership research. From that time the transformational leadership approach become one of the most popular approaches to leadership that has successfully attracted researchers since the early 1980s. According to Lowe and Gardner (2000), research in transformational leadership was found to cover one third of the all leadership research, and it occupies a central place in leadership studies. As cited by Pearce et al., (2003), the literature confirms that Downton (1973) is the first researcher to make a distinction between transactional and transformational leadership, whereas the idea gained more attention in James McGregor Burns published work (1978) on political leaders. Burns distinguished between ordinary (transactional) leaders, who exchanged tangible rewards for employees work and loyalty, and extraordinary (transformational) leaders, who engaged with employees, focused on higher-order intrinsic needs, and raised consciousness about the significance of specific outcomes and new ways in which those outcomes might be achieved (Barnett et al., 2001; Pearce et al., 2003; Gellis, 2001; Rafferty and Griffin, 2004; and Judge and Piccolo, 2004). Actually, Burns defined transformational and transactional leadership styles as opposites, whereas Bernard Bass added to these concepts but also believed that managers could demonstrate both depending on the situation (Bass, 1985). Furthermore, Bass et al. (1987) and Waldman et al. (1990) noted that transformational leadership was an extension of transactional leadership. Later, Bass introduced the augmentation model, where he argued that transformational leadership augments transactional leadership in predicting levels of individuals performances (Bass and Riggio, 2006). It is obvious, then, that much of the research on transformational leadership today goes back to the original works of Burns and Bass. Indeed, many researchers state that the most elaborate exposition of transformational leadership theory, which was later extended to the Full Range of Leadership theory, belongs to Bernard Bass (for example, Bryman, 1992; Simic, 1998; Zhang, 2011; and Si and Wei, 2012). Bernard Bass applied the work of James McGregor Burns (1978) on transformational and transactional leadership to organizational management. Bass (1999) defined the transactional leader as a leader who: (1) recognizes what his or her employees want to get from their work and tries to see that employees get what they desire if their performance warrants it; (2) exchanges rewards and promises of rewards for appropriate levels of effort; and (3) responds to the self-interests of employees as long as they are getting the job done. On the other hand, Bass and Bass (2008) claimed that transformational leaders motivate subordinates to do more than is expected. They characterized transformational leaders as those who: (1) raise the level of awareness of employees about the importance of achieving valued outcomes, a vision, and the required strategy; (2) get employees to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the group and organization; and (3) expand employees portfolio of needs by raising their awareness to improve themselves and what they are attempting to accomplish. Horn-Turpin (2009) outlines three important differences between the work of Burns (1978) and Bass (1999) on transformational and transactional leadership. Firstly, Burns (1978) suggested that the two styles of leadership are at opposite ends of the same leadership continuum: that is, the leader cannot be transactional and transformational at the same time, but could be either one of them, while Bass (1999) proposed that both transactional and transformational leadership can be displayed by the same leader. For example, Bass (1999) recognized that the same leader may use both types of the process at different times in different situations. Bass (1999) sees transformational leadership as a higher-order second leadership which is needed in addition to transactional leadership. Secondly, Burns (1978) suggested that actions are transformational if society benefits from them. Bass (1999) sees transformational leadership as not necessarily inherently beneficial; for example, Hitler was negatively transformational. Bass (1999) focuses on the individual personality while Burns (1978) placed emphasis on the leader-follower relationship. Thirdly, Bass (1999) outlined the components of the two types of leadership, specifying their content more than Burns (1978). Based on practical researches, Bass (1985) found evidence for five leadership factors: individualized consideration, charismatic leadership, intellectual stimulation, contingent rewards, and management-by-exception. Transformational leadership consisted of the first three: charismatic leadership, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation. Transactional leadership consisted of the last two factors: contingent rewards and management-by-exception. After additional investigation between approximately 1985 and 1995 the theory was expanded to denote three types of leadership behaviour transformational, transactional, and non-transactional laissez-faire leadership or passive leadership and it is referred to in the Full Range of Leadership model (Antonakis, 2003, and Bennett, 2009). Moreover, researchers conducted a meta-analysis of multiple studies which provided a review of hundreds of studies completed over the past twenty years indicate that indicate there has been fairly consistent support for the key factors of transformational leadership: charisma/idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration (for example, Lowe et al., 1996; DeGroot et al., 2000; Dumdum et al., 2002; and Judge and Piccolo, 2004). Investigation into the Full Range of Leadership theory expanded the components into nine factors: five transformational factors, three transactional factors, and one non-tran sactional leadership factor (for example: Avolio et al., 1999; Avolio and Bass, 2004; Barbuto, 2005; Rowold and Heinitz, 2007). Another modification to the model occurred with regard to its components. Antonakis et al. (2003) suggested using idealized influence instead of charisma and suggested that idealized influence should be separated into two parts: attributes and behaviour. Further, Avolio and Bass (2004) noted that management-by-exception should be divided into two parts: active and passive. Later, studies suggested using the term passive/avoidant instead of laissez-faire as the third leadership type in the Full Range of Leadership theory because it was more descriptive. Also, it was proposed that management-by-exception (active) was a better fit with transactional leadership, and management-by-exception (passive) was a better fit with laissez-faire as two subscales under the third type of leadership, now identified as passive/avoidant (Avolio and Bass, 2004; Avolio et al., 1999; Geyer and Steyrer, 1998; Bennett, 2009 and Den Hartog et al., 2011; and). The Full Range of Leadership model is displayed in Figure 2.1. As illustrated in Figure 2.1, the Full Range of Leadership model components are organized around two axes: level of activity and degree of effectiveness. The activity axis is concerned with how active or passive the leader is in his or her way of being towards employees and towards the aims of the organization. Essentially this axis has to do with the leaders level of engagement and involvement in the leadership process. The effectiveness axis relates to the effect the specific leadership style has on employee, group, and organizational outcomes in this study the outcome being investigated is employees creative performance. Figure 2.1: The Model of the Full Range of Leadership. Source: Adopted from Bass and Riggio (2006). ACTIVE EFFECTIVE INEFFECTIVE 5 Is CR MBE-A MBE-P LF PASSIVE 2.2.3.1 Transformational Leadership The Full Range of Leadership theory demonstrates that transformational leadership is a process whereby a leader utilizes a number of leadership behaviours or practices to influence the commitment and effort of employees toward the accomplishment of organizational objectives. Those practices, indeed, enhance the values and aspirations of both leader and employees (Bass and Riggio, 2006). Unlike other traditional leadership styles, transformational leadership attempts to give adequate support to organizational members so that they become highly engaged and inspired by goals that are motivational, because those goals are associated with values in which those members strongly believe or are persuaded to strongly believe. Thus, a transformational leader undertakes a matching process where he or she identifies which internal states of organizational members are critical to their performance and specifies a set of leaders practices most likely to have a positive influence on those internal states (Leithwood and Sun, 2012). Bennis and Nanus (1985) went beyond that by conceptualizing transformational leadership as a process that changes the organization by focusing on action, and by converting followers into leaders and leaders into agents of change. This notion is also supported by Sergiovanni (1990) and Avolio (1999), who argued that transformational leadership might be defined as the process whereby leaders develop followers into leaders. Followers become leaders when they are committed to a cause and are self-managing. For the purpose of this study, transformational leadership is defined in conformity with Bass and Riggio (2006), as a process through which a leader influences the organizational members toward the achievement of organizational goals by utilizing his social charisma and actions to encourage people in organization, articulate an inspiring vision for the future, create an environment for creativity, and pay close attention to individuals needs and wants. 2.2.3.2 Components of Transformational Leadership According to Bass and Avolio (1985), transformational leaders motivate others to do more than they originally intended and often even more than they thought possible. They behave in ways to achieve superior results by employing one or more of the four core components of transformational leadership, which are: (1) idealized influence (attributed and behaviours); (2) inspirational motivation; (3) intellectual stimulation; and (4) individual consideration. To some extent Bass and Riggio (2006) stated that those components have evolved, as refinements have been made in both the conceptualization and the measurement of transformational leadership. For example, Bass and Riggio (2006) argued that there are two aspects to idealized influence: the leaders behaviours, and the elements that are attributed to the leader by employees and other associates. These two aspects, measured by separate sub-factors of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), represent the interactional nature of id ealized influence: it is embodied both in the leaders behaviour and in attributions that are made concerning the leader by employees. Conceptually, transformational leaders are charismatic and employees seek to identify with the leader and emulate them. Transformational leaders inspire employees with challenge and persuasion, and provide both meaning and understanding. They intellectually stimulate and expand the employees use of their own abilities. Finally, transformational leaders are individually considerate, and provide the employees with support, mentoring, and coaching. Each of these components can be measured with the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), which will be discussed in the Methodology Chapter. Together, the five main dimensions of transformational leadership are interdependent; they must co-exist; and they are believed to represent the most effective leadership attitudes and behaviours (Gellis, 2001; Moolenaar et al., 2010; Hall et al., 2008; Pieterse, et al., 2010 and Leithwood and Sun 2012). Descriptions of the components of transformational leadership are presented in the following subsections. 2.2.3.2.1 Idealized Influence Attributed (IIA) Idealized influence attributed is defined as the socialized charisma of the leader: whether the leader is perceived as being confident and powerful, and whether the leader is viewed as focusing on higher-order ideals and ethics. Leaders who exhibit idealized influence attributed are providing a role model that employees seek to emulate (Bono and Judge, 2004; Simic, 1998; Stone, et al., 2003 and Ho et al., 2009). On the other side, employees view their leaders as having extraordinary capabilities, persistence, and determination, and they feel admiration, loyalty, and respect for the leaders (Bass, 1985). Idealized influence leaders or charismatic leaders are highly motivated to influence their employees. Their employees trust their judgments and have faith in them. Such leaders can transform the established order, and instil pride, faith, and respect. They have a gift for seeing what is really important and a sense of a vision which is effectively articulated (Avolio and Bass, 1988). Further, it has been noted that individuals who are under charismatic leadership are hig

Fashion and Women?s Movements in the Past Century Essay -- essays rese

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Today’s American women are following centuries old traditions of rebelling against society’s outlook on women around. Earlier in America’s history, it was unheard of for a woman to be in both the public and domestic sphere. Women were forced to spend most of their life in the domestic sphere, and wear ridiculous clothes everyday. For a long time, women have been degraded and pushed around, causing women to initial movements to change the way society treats women. In America, â€Å"the land of the free†, women have to fight for their equal rights. Reformers, such as Fanny Wright, Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Amelia Bloomer and many more have done so through their actions, and speeches. Nevertheless, in recent times fashion has become an available source of expression. It is a powerful tool to be able to be seen and not heard--but still get the message across. Since its humble beginnings, fashion has oftentimes just existed, but in the past century, it has existed as a form of expression, art, and liberation Now, women are still being influenced and challenged by the media and their peer, but slowly, more and more women are standing up for themselves.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Before the early to mid 1800’s, women were forced to squeeze into corsets made of whalebone, steel or buckram. It gave them the figure eight profile which resulted on a number of health problems, including their organs and body to become deformed. Over the corsets, women wore heavy layers of petticoats despite the weather. (Small Business Administration 3) Dresses emphasized the bust and hips, attempting to make women look very voluptuous. With the spread of commercialism, hundreds of new beauty products were introduced. These ever-popular restricting fashions were later outdated.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This fashion was not comfortable in any sort of the imagination, and a social reformer, Wright started to make a difference. She originated a modified version of dresses in the Victorian Age. This new dress was described as â€Å"long-sleeved, high-necked, and loose-fitting tunic over a pair of baggy trousers† (Banner 23). Anthony, Stanton, Bloomer, and along others started to wear this new comfortable fashion. Bloomer promoted this new fashion which become known as â€Å"Bloomers† in The Lily; a newspaper for women promoting â€Å"women’s suffrage, temp... ...shion of the nineties, which did provide liberation. By the end of the century, homosexuality was accepted and commonplace.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The future of women’s fashion is uncertain—in that shock value is harder to come by with each passing year. There is a concept in fashion that nothing is new, everything has been done before. This theory is coming closer to obvious reality, as fashion shows of recent years have visual throwbacks as late as the Victorian era. Although the direction is not yet decided, it is almost definite that women will use fashion as an important tool for expression and freedom in the future. Works Cited Banner, Lois W. Women in Modern America a Brief History. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974. Guerrilla Girls. â€Å"Frequently Asked Questions.† Guerrilla Girls. 2005. 2 May 2005 . Small Business Administration. â€Å" Women’s History Month Amelia Jenks Bloomer.† Online Women’s Business Center. 16 Apr. 2002. 3 May 2005 . Thomas, Pauline Weston. â€Å"1950’s Glamour Fashion History 1950’s.† Fashion Era. 2005. 2 May 2005 . World Book, Inc. â€Å"The Rise of the Modern Women’s Movement.† The Modern Women’s Movement. 2004 ed. 1. 2 May 2005 .

Essay --

Cousin Kate is a poem about a young woman who is seduced by a Lord. He soon ensnares her and marries her cousin Kate instead, leaving behind a broken-hearted cottage maiden. The maiden is soon classed as a fallen woman and is treated like an outcast in society. She is bitter and jealous of her cousin but soon reveals that she has the one thing her cousin does not and desperately wants: a son and replacement to the Lord. The poem begins by saying ‘I was a cottage maiden’. It is a simple beginning, talking in the past tense. She tells us she is lower class person. It later says she is ‘Hardened by sun and air’ this shows that the cottage maiden is strong and worked outside on land and it also suggests by the use of the words â€Å"contented with my cottage mates† that she was happy and a sense of community . Then it says ‘why did a great lord find me out,’ this tells us that the lord has been chasing after her and she has been caught by him. In this stanza there is a question asked to the question reveals that the girl is puzzled about the lord is after her. This suggests that she is aware that he has different motives rather than love and romance. This also shows that she knows the compliment is false and just a way of seducing her into bed. The second stanza is where the great lord isn’t so â€Å"great† anymore. He lured and tricked her into going to his palace home. She then saw another life. Life without working and cleaning; however, the lord doesn’t take her seriously. He doesn’t feel like he has too as they are not married. â€Å"He wore me like a silken knot† is a simile which defines how he used her in his own way. He just wanted her as an accessory. â€Å"He changed me like a glove† this quote is also a simile which outlines h... ...fair haired son, my shame, my pride† We are told she has a son, and that not only is it a memory of her shame but he is her pride. He’s all she has. Then the last three lines on stanza six are switched. The narrator is now talking to her son, her pride. â€Å"Your father would give lands for one† she is telling her son that if his father really wanted to, he would take him and would leave her (the narrator) with nothing. In conclusion, â€Å"Cousin Kate† is an extremely complicated poem, and even though there’s hate and heartbreak throughout, she ends up with pride. The narrator let the lord control her, power over her and make her what he wanted; however, Cousin Kate didn’t. She would only let him have sex with her if she could still be pure; this means that she would have to be married to do so. This probably made the lord have massive respect for Kate and not the narrator.

Conversation Analysis and the X Factor

Part 1 I have selected an interview with X-Factor judge Kelly Rowland, in which she finds out that contestant Frankie Cocozza has been ‘kicked off' of the show. Transcription methods vary depending on what the analyst chooses to investigate. In this particular case, as I was interested in, not only how the speakers perform social activities through language (Seedhouse, 2008), but also the contribution of their non-verbal actions, I chose Conversation Analysis (CA). However, one must point out that, although CA emphasises empirical, data-led research â€Å"to guard against building speculative theories,† (Hewings, 2008, p. 4), it is futile to suppose one single, authoritative version of the original event exists (Graddol, 1994). Furthermore, not all features of spoken interaction can be captured, nor can specific motives be attributed to a certain non-verbal action. 01Reporter: of course we are a:bsolutely huge fans of you on the[x factor 02Kelly: [thank you 03Reporter:(l oving watching [you 04Kelly: [thank you 05Reporter: um (. ) but b. but (. ) w. we're sho(cked to hear today ((fiddles with hair)) that Frankie's (. ) gone (. ) what can you tell ? us ? w. hat do you make of that 06Kelly:(0. 2) what(= 07PA:= I don't we don't we've been lo(cked in a room [all day 08Reporter: [oh re::ally( hah hah (. ) oh gosh yeah( th. they released a statement saying that he um (. ) that he's decided to leave 09PA:(. ) oh I don't know I think we'll have [to ( ) 10Reporter: [oh I'm sorry I ( ) 11Kelly: ((holds up hand as if to stop)) [yeah cos that would be quite the face to have from [that oh my god 12Reporter: [I'm so sorry I didn't realise it like broke all over twitter (. and I um we got a ? statement ? about it 13PA:((Kelly looks at her PA)) (0. 2) I don't know we'll have to cos (Ellen's not (here from (. ) talkback we haven't we'd need to get that [verified 14Kelly: [ye: :ah [I'm sorry 15PA:[ ( ) music interview [today 16Reporter: [like no no I'm sorry I didn't mean to= 17PA: =well hahhah 18Reporter:I I didn't mean to [like 19PA: [ ( ) 20Reporter:Yeah sorry I didn't mean to [like um I didn't realise that you (. ) didn't know 21Kelly: [ ((she sighs loudly)) (0. 3) (poor guy( 380 words Part 2Conversation Analysis is based on the idea that what is said draws a vast amount of meaning from what is left unsaid (Maybin, 2007). Seemingly incoherent conversations are actually organised in an orderly fashion, centred around the cooperation of participants (Hewings, 2008). The excerpt I have chosen is particularly interesting as, although it stems from a potentially scripted situation, due to Kelly's misinformation, the entire conversation immediately shifts to unscripted. The conversation begins with informal ‘small talk,' known as phatic communion (Malinowski, 1923. Its primary purpose is not its content, but rather to bind the reporter and Kelly together before ‘getting down to business. ‘ The reporter's opening comment of being an absolutely huge fan of hers on the X-Factor establishes an interactional framework for the encounter. As the interviewer, she is expected to lead the conversation, yet her continuous opening compliments – â€Å"loving watching you†- show that she is aware of Kelly's higher status and, thus, is paying far more attention to face needs (Levinson, 1987). â€Å"Face† is a term coined by sociologist Goffman (1967) for people's public self-image.Here, the reporter, keen to obtain a successful interview, uses compliments to focus on positive face needs, fitting with Holmes' (1994) research that women are more likely to give compliments as a way of gaining popularity through ‘egalitarian norms. ‘ Although turn-taking may be taken for granted, it is actually managed through a complex range of linguistic and social signals. In the transcript, we can see that normally one person talks at a time, and any instances of overlap are quickly repaired (lines 15-16). Early conversation analyst, Sacks (1974), suggests this is due to people's shared cultural knowledge of the kind of ‘script' used in certain speech events. Therefore, turns can be roughly predicted. Furthermore, this intuitive knowledge is based on adjacency pairs, where particular utterances and responses tend to occur together – e. g. , lines 1-4, where each compliment is answered with â€Å"thank you. † Through this dialogic comprehension, turns can easily be allocated. In addition to adjacency pairs, Sacks noticed that speakers unconsciously respond at the end of a grammatical unit, rather than in the middle.In lines 5-7, we see clear examples of transition relevance places (TRP), where the reporter pauses for a response, allowing both other interlocutors to speak. Sometimes, one can slightly overlap the previous speaker or break in before a TRP (e. g. , lines 9-10), which is classed as an interruption. The concept of maintaining face is a constant reference point throughout the interaction, especially when the journalist discovers that Kelly does not know that Frankie has left the competition.Determined to both satisfy Kelly's face needs, as well as to protect her own, the journalist begins apologising profusely (lines 10-20), in addition to hedging expressions (line 18) to avoid a face-threatening act, personifying the British ‘negative politeness' culture (Brown, 1987). Line 12 even shows an example of typical political rhetoric whereby the journalist immediately changes her usage of the pronoun ‘I' to ‘we' in order to give collective responsibility (Beard, 2008) for the news on Frankie's departure. This signal of inclusiveness is another device used to save face and ensure that conversation continues running smoothly.It is interesting, however, that, contrary to the belief that a person will use ‘I' when wanting credit for an idea, the journalist still uses ‘we' (line 5). Given that ‘we' can have various potential meanings, here it would appear to be a mechanism to emphasise with the British public – ‘we,' as a whole, are shocked at the news. Even so, when apologising, the journalist shifts back to the first person singular, almost as if she feels she has the sole responsibility to maintain face, both for personal and professional motives.Spoken conversation is filled with inexplicit references that are understood by a considerable amount of shared knowledge between speakers. In line 13, when replying to the journalist, the PA announces that ‘Ellen' is not here – we can assume that the journalist knows who Ellen is but, just to make sure, the PA adds ‘from Talkback' (X-Factor's Production Company). As well as justifying why they cannot answer the question, this response also subtly signals solidarity by communicating surreptitiously that there are no ‘hard feelings' between them.As Levinson's (1987) study shows, people are remarkably ade pt at interpreting these inexplicit nuances and, thus, it should serve to put the journalist more at ease. These references are closely linked to elliptical structures, such as in line 3 where, although the clause lacks some words, its meaning is inferable from its context. These half-finished sentences are a key part of everyday interactions, yet would seem highly inappropriate in written English. As all speakers are women in this transcript, it is easy to identify their specific style features.According to Lakoff (1975), women are more cooperative and work harder to make conversations run smoother. This aspect is clearly detectable throughout the extract by both the journalist's repeated apologies and Kelly and her PA's attempts to casually move away from the issue. This non-confrontational collaborative speech style also centres around an interest in people's feelings (Goodwin, 1990). However, as opposed to Lakoff's suggestion that women use more tag questions and weaker vocabula ry, we see no examples of this in the conversation.One reason may be that the women have no reason to show deference, as there are no men involved and, thus, they do not have to conform to the belief that they occupy a less powerful position in society. One predominant metaphor comes in line 7 of the text when the PA states that they have been â€Å"locked† in a room all day. This device both emphasises that they truly have no idea about the news, as well as serving as a pointer to guide the conversation into a different direction. In response to this metaphor, we see continual repetition from the journalist (in particular, â€Å"yeah† and â€Å"sorry†).Although repetition is typically used to persuade, here it performs the dual function of consciously expressing the journalist's nervousness as well as unconsciously signalling how the other speakers should respond. The repetition of â€Å"sorry† is used to indicate the journalist's desire to not impose up on them and avoid any act that may threaten face. In terms of prosody, the use of intonational shift is very significant, as it highlights particular key words, as well as prompting the other speakers when to reply (Atkinson, 1984).In line 6, Kelly's voice rises up on â€Å"What? † to express disbelief and concern at the information that she has been given. Similarly, we see a fall in intonation on the last remark â€Å"Poor guy,† which signals completion as well as sadness. Likewise, the lengthy stress on â€Å"yeah† (line 14) shows acknowledgement of the PA's utterance and provides a sense of cooperation with her. A related concept is the function of softly spoken words. In line 5, ‘us' is murmured softly in order to place the journalist on the same level as the interviewee.Despite the typical image of a journalist, this lady wants to show that she is truly interested in how Kelly feels about Frankie's departure on a personal level. In line 12, ‘st atement' is pronounced quietly to perhaps ‘soften the blow' of the news. As a statement is something official, it highlights the fact that the news is real, and not just a rumour. Therefore, in order to save face, the journalist tactfully pronounces the word. This conversation extract is filled with various meaningful pauses. A lot of these pauses occur within a syntactic unit before an important content word (e. g. line 20) to subtly inform the speaker that they are not finished yet. However, there are also prolonged pauses, such as in line 21 – in this case, Kelly is genuinely shocked at the news and needs to carefully plan her answer before speaking. For celebrities, this is even more important, as anything they do say can be subject to scrutiny. The journalist's utterances are also classified by filled pauses, such as ‘um' and ‘hahhah' – this shows hesitancy on her part and a caution to ensure that she does not make the situation anymore awkward t han it already is. This also explains the reasons for her continual cluttered speech (e. . , line 5) – on breaking the news, she cannot predict Kelly's reaction, and so she nervously brings up the topic, not sure of the best approach, eluding the usual self-assured journalistic persona. Finally, when looking at body language, it appears that it communicates a lot non-verbally. Firstly, in line 5, the reporter fiddles with her hair as she relates the announcement. Although we cannot claim 100% what this means, it is highly likely that this is a comforting action in a tense situation. In line 11, Kelly's raising of the hand signals that she wishes to stop and does not want her reaction recorded.Line 13 similarly expresses uncertainty on Kelly's part when she looks at her PA for reassurance before speaking. Finally, in line 21, the prolonged sigh emphasises with Frankie's grief. Overall, this particular extract fascinated me, as it shows how scripted conversation can quickly tur n unscripted when typical conventions break down. Non-fluency features are common and evident – there are excessive hesitations, stuttering and repetition by the journalist and spontaneous turn-taking procedures seen by the interruptions and overlaps of Kelly and her PA (Edwards, 2007).Furthermore, irregular supra segmental features are present, as well as fillers and echoes. Syntax is irregular, with convoluted utterances and incomplete sections as well as mid-sentence pauses. In my opinion, Conversation Analysis was the best method to transcribe this conversation as, without it, it would have been impossible to convey the specific emotions of each interlocutor as well as their non-verbal communication. Also, I felt that the false starts and fillers were incredibly relevant to the spontaneity of the extract, and provided an insight into each speaker's thought process.I specifically chose to omit gaze in my transcript as CA has been criticised for over-analysing simple gestur es – e. g. , blinking could merely be something in the eye, rather than lying. Using this transcription method, I have been able to analyse both ideational and interpersonal meaning (Halliday, 1978) and how it specifically relates to my chosen example. 1706 words (2086 words in total) References Atkinson, J. M. (1984) Our Master's Voices: The Language and Body Language of Politics, London, Methuen Beard, A. 2007) ‘Using English to persuade' in Maybin, J. , Mercer, N. , and Hewings, A. (eds) Using English, London, Routledge/The Open University, pp. 43-81 Brown, P. and Levinson, S. (1987) Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Crystal, D. (1985) ‘Things to remember when transcribing speech,' Child Language Teaching and Therapy, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 235-239 Edwards, V. (2007) U211 Exploring the English Language, DVD 1: Language Play in English, Block B, Unit 11, Section 5, Milton Keynes, The Open UniversityGoffman, E. (1967 ) Interactional Ritual, Harmondsworth, Penguin Goodwin, M. H. (1990) ‘Tactical use of stories: participation frameworks within girls' and boys' disputes', Discourse Processes, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 33-71 Graddol, D. , Cheshire, J. , and Swann, J. (1994) Describing Language (2nd edn), Buckingham, Open University Press Halliday, M. A. K. (1978) Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning, London, Edward Arnold Hewings, A. 2008) U211 Exploring the English Language, ‘Conversation Analysis,' Resource and Reference Materials, Unit 9, Section 1, Milton Keynes, The Open University Holmes, J. (2001) Introduction to Sociolinguistics (2nd edn), London, Longman Lakoff, R. (1975) Language and Women's Place, New York, Harper & Row Malinowski, B. (1923) ‘The problem of meaning in primitive languages' in Ogden, C. K. and Richards, I. M. (eds) The Meaning of Meaning, London, Routledge &Kegan Paul Maybin, J. (2007) ‘Everyday talk' in Maybin, J. , Mercer, N. , and Hewings, A. eds) Using English, London, Routledge/The Open University, pp. 5-41 Percival, A. (2011) What? The moment Kelly finds out Frankie has been axed [online] London http://celebrity. aol. co. uk/2011/11/08/kelly-rowland-frankie-cocozza/ (Accessed: 29th Nov 2011) Sacks, H. , Schegloff, E. and Jefferson, G. (1974) ‘A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking in conversation', Language, Vol. 50, No. 4, pp. 696-735 Seedhouse, P. (2008) U211 Exploring the English Language, DVD 1: Everyday Talk, Block B, Unit 9, Section 1, Milton Keynes, The Open UniversityVaid, V. (2011) 4 rules of Verbatim Transcription [online] Gurgaon http://www. indianscribes. com/4-rules-of-verbatim-transcription/ (Accessed: 2nd Dec 2011) ———————– Key to transcription methods used in this excerpt (. )Short untimed pause (0. 6)Timed interval [ ]Overlapping utterances or actions ( )Transcription doubtful (Marked risi ng shift in pitch (Marked falling shift in pitch : :Extension of sound or syllable .Stopping falling tone ? ? Talk that is quieter than surrounding talk